A process for the detanning of chrome leather wastes utilising tannery effluents
- Authors: Glaum, Deanne Melanie
- Date: 1994
- Subjects: Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Recycling (Waste, etc.) , Leather
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4029 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1004089 , Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Recycling (Waste, etc.) , Leather
- Description: The considerable volume of chromium-bearing wastes generated during the process of leather tanning, exacerbated by the potential for trivalent chromium in the wastes to be oxidised to the toxic hexavalent state, has created a major waste disposal dilemma for the tanning industry. While methods are available for the safe and effective treatment of residual chrome-tanning liquors, little has been done to address the issue of the chrome-bearing solid wastes. Given the increasingly stringent environmental compliance standards facing tanneries, unless an appropriate treatment process is developed in the immediate future, the continued use of chromium as a tanning agent could be compromised. Recent investigations have demonstrated the potential of heated alkaline conditions for dechroming these solid wastes. This study expanded upon these considerations and examined the feasibility of utilising the highly alkaline tannery waste effluents as cost-effective, substitute alkaline media. The three effluents considered in this study, classed as lime sulphide liquors, were shown to be capable of dechroming wet blue shavings, with resultant separation of the solid wastes into a protein and a concentrated chromium product. The solubilised protein product contained low chromium concentrations which comply with legal discharge limits. The precipitated chromium product offers opportunity for reutilisation in the tannery. A novel industrial-scale treatment process, based on these investigations, indicated the process to be capable of treating the quantity of shavings produced on a daily basis by a medium to large scale tannery. Application of this method for the dechroming of other chrome-tanned solid wastes was also shown to be feasible.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1994
- Authors: Glaum, Deanne Melanie
- Date: 1994
- Subjects: Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Recycling (Waste, etc.) , Leather
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4029 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1004089 , Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Recycling (Waste, etc.) , Leather
- Description: The considerable volume of chromium-bearing wastes generated during the process of leather tanning, exacerbated by the potential for trivalent chromium in the wastes to be oxidised to the toxic hexavalent state, has created a major waste disposal dilemma for the tanning industry. While methods are available for the safe and effective treatment of residual chrome-tanning liquors, little has been done to address the issue of the chrome-bearing solid wastes. Given the increasingly stringent environmental compliance standards facing tanneries, unless an appropriate treatment process is developed in the immediate future, the continued use of chromium as a tanning agent could be compromised. Recent investigations have demonstrated the potential of heated alkaline conditions for dechroming these solid wastes. This study expanded upon these considerations and examined the feasibility of utilising the highly alkaline tannery waste effluents as cost-effective, substitute alkaline media. The three effluents considered in this study, classed as lime sulphide liquors, were shown to be capable of dechroming wet blue shavings, with resultant separation of the solid wastes into a protein and a concentrated chromium product. The solubilised protein product contained low chromium concentrations which comply with legal discharge limits. The precipitated chromium product offers opportunity for reutilisation in the tannery. A novel industrial-scale treatment process, based on these investigations, indicated the process to be capable of treating the quantity of shavings produced on a daily basis by a medium to large scale tannery. Application of this method for the dechroming of other chrome-tanned solid wastes was also shown to be feasible.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1994
Algal biotechnology and the beneficiation of saline effluent wastes
- Authors: Rose, P D (Peter Dale)
- Date: 1992
- Subjects: Algae -- Biotechnology , Algae culture , Tanneries -- Waste disposal
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: vital:4135 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1015967
- Description: Saline deterioration in the South African public water system has been documented and disposal of brine wastes has been identified as part of the problem. The broad aim of this research programme was to undertake an initial technical study to evaluate the feasibility of integrating algal biotechnology into a disposal function for these wastes. A demonstration of utility in the form of products and waste treatment could produce a beneficiation of saline effluents and provide incentives necessary to deal with the disposal issue. The study attempted to demonstrate a synthesis between the two main thrusts in algal biotechnology that have produced large-scale practical applications - stable, predictable algal production in saline media and the cost effective High Rate Oxidation Ponding (HROP) process for incorporating algal production into a waste treatment function. Tannery organic saline effluents and the biotechnology of Dunaliella salina culture producing β- carotene were chosen as paradigms for the study. 1. The alga was shown to grow in certain tannery effluents producing enhanced biomass yields compared to defined inorganic medium cultivation. The potential for amino acid or protein supplementation of defmed culture media was noted. 2. A reduction in organic load simultaneous with the growth of D.salina was recorded in laboratory-scale simulations of the HROP process. Rates similar to the fresh water HROP equivalent were demonstrated. 3. These results suggested the uptake and storage of organic nitrogen by D.salina. The consequent inhibition of β-carotene accumulation by the organism presented a potentially insurmountable obstacle to the feasibility of β-carotene production in this medium. Uptake and release of organic compounds, previously demonstrated in phytoplankton and other micro-algae, was confirmed in this study for D.salina. The evidence acquired indicated the internalization of both glycine and bovine serum albumin. An ultrastructural study demonstrated mechanisms by which this process might occur. 4. The release of substantial quantities of glycerol was shown. A mechanism whereby D. salina may use this to regulate ammonia availability via control of its associated bacterial population was observed. Glycerol release was identified as presenting an application in treating refractory organic wastes, such as secondary sewage sludges, by elevating C:N ratios. This could demonstrate a significant utility for brine waste impoundments. 5. A multistage production process was proposed to deal with the problem of β-carotene inhibition by separation of the growth and metabolite accumulation functions into separate unit operations. It was shown in this study that the stress of nitrogen deficiency combined with high salinity provides for effectiveβ-carotene accumulation under the conditions of low illumination that pertain in dense cultures. Subjected to these conditions effluent-grown cells show delayed but unimpaired {j-carotene accumulation. 6. A role for the plant hormone abscisic acid in mediating the stress response was demonstrated in D.salina. Fluorescence induction studies suggested the presence of a signalling process forming part of a sensitivity control mechanism. Stress induction of β-carotene accumulation could occur through four clearly defined stages. Potential was identified for using this response as a physiological probe for monitoring and regulating the stress induction process. 7. The multistage processing concept requires effective algal cell separation technology. The use of cross-flow ultrafiltration and diafiltration with a polyethersulfone tubular membrane system was demonstrated as an effective process for the recovery and washing of D. salina. Cell concentrates were produced in a viable form. 8. Process designs incorporating the findings of the research programme are presented demonstrating how effluent and organic waste treatment functions may be combined with the production of D.salina and its products. Application of the multi-stage processing concept to β-carotene production in a defined medium process was identified as offering a potential four-fold yield enhancement. This could have a significant impact on a high cost, marginal algal biotechnology process. Aspects of novelty have been claimed in provisional patents applications. A provisional demonstration of the feasibility of D.salina production in tannery effluent indicates that algal biotechnology may provide a utility for, and hence the beneficiation of saline effluent wastes.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1992
- Authors: Rose, P D (Peter Dale)
- Date: 1992
- Subjects: Algae -- Biotechnology , Algae culture , Tanneries -- Waste disposal
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: vital:4135 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1015967
- Description: Saline deterioration in the South African public water system has been documented and disposal of brine wastes has been identified as part of the problem. The broad aim of this research programme was to undertake an initial technical study to evaluate the feasibility of integrating algal biotechnology into a disposal function for these wastes. A demonstration of utility in the form of products and waste treatment could produce a beneficiation of saline effluents and provide incentives necessary to deal with the disposal issue. The study attempted to demonstrate a synthesis between the two main thrusts in algal biotechnology that have produced large-scale practical applications - stable, predictable algal production in saline media and the cost effective High Rate Oxidation Ponding (HROP) process for incorporating algal production into a waste treatment function. Tannery organic saline effluents and the biotechnology of Dunaliella salina culture producing β- carotene were chosen as paradigms for the study. 1. The alga was shown to grow in certain tannery effluents producing enhanced biomass yields compared to defined inorganic medium cultivation. The potential for amino acid or protein supplementation of defmed culture media was noted. 2. A reduction in organic load simultaneous with the growth of D.salina was recorded in laboratory-scale simulations of the HROP process. Rates similar to the fresh water HROP equivalent were demonstrated. 3. These results suggested the uptake and storage of organic nitrogen by D.salina. The consequent inhibition of β-carotene accumulation by the organism presented a potentially insurmountable obstacle to the feasibility of β-carotene production in this medium. Uptake and release of organic compounds, previously demonstrated in phytoplankton and other micro-algae, was confirmed in this study for D.salina. The evidence acquired indicated the internalization of both glycine and bovine serum albumin. An ultrastructural study demonstrated mechanisms by which this process might occur. 4. The release of substantial quantities of glycerol was shown. A mechanism whereby D. salina may use this to regulate ammonia availability via control of its associated bacterial population was observed. Glycerol release was identified as presenting an application in treating refractory organic wastes, such as secondary sewage sludges, by elevating C:N ratios. This could demonstrate a significant utility for brine waste impoundments. 5. A multistage production process was proposed to deal with the problem of β-carotene inhibition by separation of the growth and metabolite accumulation functions into separate unit operations. It was shown in this study that the stress of nitrogen deficiency combined with high salinity provides for effectiveβ-carotene accumulation under the conditions of low illumination that pertain in dense cultures. Subjected to these conditions effluent-grown cells show delayed but unimpaired {j-carotene accumulation. 6. A role for the plant hormone abscisic acid in mediating the stress response was demonstrated in D.salina. Fluorescence induction studies suggested the presence of a signalling process forming part of a sensitivity control mechanism. Stress induction of β-carotene accumulation could occur through four clearly defined stages. Potential was identified for using this response as a physiological probe for monitoring and regulating the stress induction process. 7. The multistage processing concept requires effective algal cell separation technology. The use of cross-flow ultrafiltration and diafiltration with a polyethersulfone tubular membrane system was demonstrated as an effective process for the recovery and washing of D. salina. Cell concentrates were produced in a viable form. 8. Process designs incorporating the findings of the research programme are presented demonstrating how effluent and organic waste treatment functions may be combined with the production of D.salina and its products. Application of the multi-stage processing concept to β-carotene production in a defined medium process was identified as offering a potential four-fold yield enhancement. This could have a significant impact on a high cost, marginal algal biotechnology process. Aspects of novelty have been claimed in provisional patents applications. A provisional demonstration of the feasibility of D.salina production in tannery effluent indicates that algal biotechnology may provide a utility for, and hence the beneficiation of saline effluent wastes.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1992
The culture of Dunaliella salina and the production of β-carotene in tannery effluents
- Authors: Laubscher, Richard Keith
- Date: 1992
- Subjects: Dunaliella , Carotenes , Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Recycling (Waste, etc.)
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4055 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1004116 , Dunaliella , Carotenes , Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Recycling (Waste, etc.)
- Description: The problems of waste disposal in the tanning industry are unique in that the effluents are highly saline, have a high organic loading and contain heavy metals. Methods are available for the safe treatment and disposal of the latter two components, but the saline component requires the expensive outlay of evaporation ponds. This study has identified a possible use for the saline effluents, turning a problematic waste product into a potentially valuable by-product. A range of tannery effluents were identified and tested for their suitability for the mass cultivation of Dunaliella salina (bardawil strain). The bardawil strain was preferred over a local isolate because of its higher production of β-carotene. Ponded tannery effluents and combined processes effluent proved unsuitable for realistic propagation of the alga. Anaerobic digestion of combined processes effluent did not improve its suitability significantly. Anaerobic digestion of hide-soak effluent may remove persistent antimicrobial agents which influence algal growth, but its contribution to enhancing algal growth is equivocal. Undigested hide-soak effluent lacking in persistent antimicrobial agents was found to be an ideal culture medium, as no additional nutrients needed to be added. Significantly higher biomass was obtained in this effluent compared to chemically defined media. Induction of β-carotene was achieved in nitrogen-deficient defined media after culture in tannery effluent. This suggests that a two-stage system using hide-soak effluent for cell propagation and nitrogen deficient media for β-carotene induction, could be possible for the mass cultivation of D. salina for β-carotene production.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1992
- Authors: Laubscher, Richard Keith
- Date: 1992
- Subjects: Dunaliella , Carotenes , Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Recycling (Waste, etc.)
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4055 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1004116 , Dunaliella , Carotenes , Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Recycling (Waste, etc.)
- Description: The problems of waste disposal in the tanning industry are unique in that the effluents are highly saline, have a high organic loading and contain heavy metals. Methods are available for the safe treatment and disposal of the latter two components, but the saline component requires the expensive outlay of evaporation ponds. This study has identified a possible use for the saline effluents, turning a problematic waste product into a potentially valuable by-product. A range of tannery effluents were identified and tested for their suitability for the mass cultivation of Dunaliella salina (bardawil strain). The bardawil strain was preferred over a local isolate because of its higher production of β-carotene. Ponded tannery effluents and combined processes effluent proved unsuitable for realistic propagation of the alga. Anaerobic digestion of combined processes effluent did not improve its suitability significantly. Anaerobic digestion of hide-soak effluent may remove persistent antimicrobial agents which influence algal growth, but its contribution to enhancing algal growth is equivocal. Undigested hide-soak effluent lacking in persistent antimicrobial agents was found to be an ideal culture medium, as no additional nutrients needed to be added. Significantly higher biomass was obtained in this effluent compared to chemically defined media. Induction of β-carotene was achieved in nitrogen-deficient defined media after culture in tannery effluent. This suggests that a two-stage system using hide-soak effluent for cell propagation and nitrogen deficient media for β-carotene induction, could be possible for the mass cultivation of D. salina for β-carotene production.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1992
An investigation into the use of anaerobic digestion for the treatment of tannery wastewaters
- Authors: Jackson-Moss, Clive Alan
- Date: 1991
- Subjects: Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Sewage sludge -- South Africa -- Management , Sewage -- Purification -- Biological treatment -- South Africa , Water quality management -- South Africa , Water -- Purification -- Biological treatment -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: vital:4059 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1004120 , Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Sewage sludge -- South Africa -- Management , Sewage -- Purification -- Biological treatment -- South Africa , Water quality management -- South Africa , Water -- Purification -- Biological treatment -- South Africa
- Description: The anaerobic digestion of tannery wastewaters was investigated with a view to using this form of treatment in the tanning industry. As these wastewaters are extremely complex and contain high concentrations of both inorganic and organic compounds, the effect of these individual compounds on the anaerobic digestion process was investigated in detail, in order to ascertain the fate of these compounds during the digestion process. The experiments comprising the initial toxicity study were carried out as adaptation experiments using a synthetic wastewater. It was found that the heavy metals such as chrome, aluminium and iron precipitated and accumulated in the sludge bed of the digesters . The soluble ions such as sodium and chloride were not retained and passed through the digesters. Approximately 20 % of the calcium ions were removed through precipitation, with the remainder being present in the digester effluent . Under the anaerobic conditions, ammonification of the organic nitrogen occurred, and influent sulphates were reduced to sulphides . These sulphides were present as either H2S, HS or insoluble sulphides. As these compounds under investigation on caused no inhibition of the anaerobic digestion process at the concentrations found in tannery wastewaters, the anaerobic treatment of these wastewaters appeared to be possible, provided the bacteria were given sufficient time to adapt to the potentially toxic compounds. However, despite the findings of the synthetic study, the successful anaerobic digestion of the tannery effluents could not be achieved. Although the use of acid was found to be essential in order to control the digester pH in the optimum range, the metabolism of the methanogenic bacteria was inhibited by the presence or absence of unknown compounds. Neither the addition of essential trace nutrients, nor the prevention of the competition between the methanogens and the sulphate-reducing bacteria were able to reverse this inhibition. As tannery effluents contain very low concentrations of phosphorous, it is possible that the methanogens were inhibited by a lack of phosphorous, which is essential during methanogenesis. In contrast to the results obtained from the effluent experiments, the anaerobic digestion of tannery sludge was found to be possible. Of the organic solids present in the sludge, 60 % were degraded and converted into biogas, which had a methane content greater than 70 %. The degradation of the organic solids ensured that COD and PV reductions of greater than 90 % were achieved, and the fate of the compounds in the digesters were in agreement with the findings of the v synthetic study. Efforts to improve the efficiency of the digestion process through the addition of trace nutrients and the use of a two-stage process were only successful in bringing about a minor improvement in digester performance. The overall results of this investigation show, therefore, that although the anaerobic treatment of the tannery effluent was not achieved, the successful anaerobic digestion of tannery sludge is possible at low loading rates. As many difficulties still need to be solved, a great deal of further research is necessary if anaerobic digestion is to be used on an industrial scale for the treatment and disposal of tannery wastewaters.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1991
- Authors: Jackson-Moss, Clive Alan
- Date: 1991
- Subjects: Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Sewage sludge -- South Africa -- Management , Sewage -- Purification -- Biological treatment -- South Africa , Water quality management -- South Africa , Water -- Purification -- Biological treatment -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: vital:4059 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1004120 , Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Sewage sludge -- South Africa -- Management , Sewage -- Purification -- Biological treatment -- South Africa , Water quality management -- South Africa , Water -- Purification -- Biological treatment -- South Africa
- Description: The anaerobic digestion of tannery wastewaters was investigated with a view to using this form of treatment in the tanning industry. As these wastewaters are extremely complex and contain high concentrations of both inorganic and organic compounds, the effect of these individual compounds on the anaerobic digestion process was investigated in detail, in order to ascertain the fate of these compounds during the digestion process. The experiments comprising the initial toxicity study were carried out as adaptation experiments using a synthetic wastewater. It was found that the heavy metals such as chrome, aluminium and iron precipitated and accumulated in the sludge bed of the digesters . The soluble ions such as sodium and chloride were not retained and passed through the digesters. Approximately 20 % of the calcium ions were removed through precipitation, with the remainder being present in the digester effluent . Under the anaerobic conditions, ammonification of the organic nitrogen occurred, and influent sulphates were reduced to sulphides . These sulphides were present as either H2S, HS or insoluble sulphides. As these compounds under investigation on caused no inhibition of the anaerobic digestion process at the concentrations found in tannery wastewaters, the anaerobic treatment of these wastewaters appeared to be possible, provided the bacteria were given sufficient time to adapt to the potentially toxic compounds. However, despite the findings of the synthetic study, the successful anaerobic digestion of the tannery effluents could not be achieved. Although the use of acid was found to be essential in order to control the digester pH in the optimum range, the metabolism of the methanogenic bacteria was inhibited by the presence or absence of unknown compounds. Neither the addition of essential trace nutrients, nor the prevention of the competition between the methanogens and the sulphate-reducing bacteria were able to reverse this inhibition. As tannery effluents contain very low concentrations of phosphorous, it is possible that the methanogens were inhibited by a lack of phosphorous, which is essential during methanogenesis. In contrast to the results obtained from the effluent experiments, the anaerobic digestion of tannery sludge was found to be possible. Of the organic solids present in the sludge, 60 % were degraded and converted into biogas, which had a methane content greater than 70 %. The degradation of the organic solids ensured that COD and PV reductions of greater than 90 % were achieved, and the fate of the compounds in the digesters were in agreement with the findings of the v synthetic study. Efforts to improve the efficiency of the digestion process through the addition of trace nutrients and the use of a two-stage process were only successful in bringing about a minor improvement in digester performance. The overall results of this investigation show, therefore, that although the anaerobic treatment of the tannery effluent was not achieved, the successful anaerobic digestion of tannery sludge is possible at low loading rates. As many difficulties still need to be solved, a great deal of further research is necessary if anaerobic digestion is to be used on an industrial scale for the treatment and disposal of tannery wastewaters.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1991
Aspects of the anaerobic digestion of wattle tannins
- Authors: Hurlow, Elton Lloyd
- Date: 1987
- Subjects: Tanneries -- Waste disposal
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4300 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1004909
- Description: The aqueous extract from the bark of the black wattle tree, (Acacia mearnsii De Wild)(1), is used extensively in the tanning industry for the production of sole and other heavy leathers as well as in lighter leathers and skins. The commercial extract is available in an easily dissolvable spray dried form and in deference to its genus name Mimosaceae is referred to in the trade as Mimosa(3). Mimosa extract consists primarily of high molecular weight polymeric flavonoid units which also constitutes the active tanning ingredient. Lower phenolics, gums and sugars or the so called "non-tannins" are present as impurities and contribute up to 40% to (3 ) the total mass of the extract.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1987
- Authors: Hurlow, Elton Lloyd
- Date: 1987
- Subjects: Tanneries -- Waste disposal
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4300 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1004909
- Description: The aqueous extract from the bark of the black wattle tree, (Acacia mearnsii De Wild)(1), is used extensively in the tanning industry for the production of sole and other heavy leathers as well as in lighter leathers and skins. The commercial extract is available in an easily dissolvable spray dried form and in deference to its genus name Mimosaceae is referred to in the trade as Mimosa(3). Mimosa extract consists primarily of high molecular weight polymeric flavonoid units which also constitutes the active tanning ingredient. Lower phenolics, gums and sugars or the so called "non-tannins" are present as impurities and contribute up to 40% to (3 ) the total mass of the extract.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1987
Studies on the completely mixed activated sludge treatment of fellmongery and tannery lime-sulphide effluents
- Authors: Rawlings, Douglas Eric
- Date: 1977
- Subjects: Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Sewage sludge -- South Africa -- Management , Sewage -- Purificiation -- Biological treatment , Water quality management -- South Africa , Water -- Purification -- Biological treatment -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: vital:4112 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1013052
- Description: Industries producing highly polluted waste waters are having to purify their effluents to meet with ever increasing requirements laid down by water authorities. The South African Water Act of 1956 has prescribed a very high standard to which waste waters must conform before discharge into a South African water course. Enforcement of these standards falls under the jurisdiction of government authorities such as the Department of Water Affairs. Similarly, municipalities and other local authorities set standards with which trade effluents must comply before discharge into public sewers for treatment in a municipal sewage works. These local authorities are empowered to recover from the trader the additional costs incurred in treating trade effluents. Costs are usually levied in respect of volume, oxygen demand, settleable solids and the production of secondary sludge. In recent years, these standards have been enforced to an extent where the survival of several industries has become dependant on whether these industries are able to purify or dispose of their effluents in a manner acceptable to the water authorities. Chap. 1, p. 1.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1977
- Authors: Rawlings, Douglas Eric
- Date: 1977
- Subjects: Tanneries -- Waste disposal , Sewage sludge -- South Africa -- Management , Sewage -- Purificiation -- Biological treatment , Water quality management -- South Africa , Water -- Purification -- Biological treatment -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: vital:4112 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1013052
- Description: Industries producing highly polluted waste waters are having to purify their effluents to meet with ever increasing requirements laid down by water authorities. The South African Water Act of 1956 has prescribed a very high standard to which waste waters must conform before discharge into a South African water course. Enforcement of these standards falls under the jurisdiction of government authorities such as the Department of Water Affairs. Similarly, municipalities and other local authorities set standards with which trade effluents must comply before discharge into public sewers for treatment in a municipal sewage works. These local authorities are empowered to recover from the trader the additional costs incurred in treating trade effluents. Costs are usually levied in respect of volume, oxygen demand, settleable solids and the production of secondary sludge. In recent years, these standards have been enforced to an extent where the survival of several industries has become dependant on whether these industries are able to purify or dispose of their effluents in a manner acceptable to the water authorities. Chap. 1, p. 1.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1977
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